How to write

COMMA and SEMICOLON RULE

Independent Clauses, when short and closely connected, are separated by the comma; but, when the clauses are slightly connected, or when they are themselves divided into parts by the comma, the semi-colon is used.

A parenthetical clause may be set by the comma or by the dash, or it may be enclosed within marks of parenthesis–the marks of parenthesis showing the least degree of connection in sense.

Place a period after

1.  a declarative or an imperative sentence

2.  an abbreviation

3.  a number written in the Roman notation

4.  Arabic figures used to enumerate.

Every direct interrogative sentence or clause should be followed by an interrogation point.

All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point.

Set off by the comma

1.  an explanatory modifier which does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it

2.  a participle used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless restrictive

3.  the adjective clause when not restrictive

4.  the adverb clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies

5.  a phrase out of its usual order or not closely connected with the word it modifies

6.  a word or phrase independent or nearly so

7.  a direct quotation introduced into a sentence, unless formally introduced

8.  a noun clause used as an attribute complement; and

9.  a term connected to another by or and having the same meaning. Separate by the comma

10. connected words and phrases, unless all the conjunctions are expressed;

11. co-ordinate clauses when short and closely connected

12.  the parts of a compound predicate, and other phrases, when long or differently modified.

13.  to denote an omission of words

14.  after as, namely, etc., introducing illustrations

15.  when it is needed to prevent ambiguity.

Use the semicolon

1. when slightly connected

2. when themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon.

3. between serial phrases or clauses having a common dependence on something which precedes or follows

4. before as, to wit, namely, i. e., and that is, when they introduce examples or illustrations.

Use the dash where there is an omission

1. of letters or figures,

2. of such words as as, namely, or that is, introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions.

3. where the sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension, or another takes its place

4. before a word or phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used 5. instead of marks of parenthesis, and may 6 follow other marks, adding to their force.

Marks of parenthesis may be used to enclose what has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence.

Use the apostrophe

1.  to mark the omission of letters

2.  in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters

3.  to distinguish the possessive from other cases.

Use the hyphen

1.  to join the parts of compound words

2. between syllables when a word is divided.

CAPITAL LETTER RULE

The first word of a direct quotation making complete sense or of a direct question introduced into a sentence should begin with a capital letter.

An indirect quotation is one whose thought, but not whose exact words, is copied; as, Nathan told David that he was the man. The reference here of the pronoun he is somewhat ambiguous. Guard against this, especially in indirect quotations.

The direct quotation is set off by the comma, begins with a capital letter, and is enclosed within quotation marks–though these may be omitted. The indirect quotation is not generally set off by the comma, does not necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not enclosed within quotation marks.

A direct question introduced into a sentence is one in which the exact words and their order in an interrogative sentence are preserved, and which is followed by an interrogation point.

An indirect question is one which is referred to as a question, but not directly asked or quoted as such, and which is not followed by an interrogation point.

The direct question introduced into a sentence is set off by the comma but no comma is used after the interrogation point, begins with a capital letter, and is enclosed within quotation marks–though these may be omitted.

An indirect question is not generally set off by a comma, does not necessarily begin with a capital letter, and is not enclosed within quotation marks.

If the direct quotation, whether a question or not, is formally introduced it is preceded by the colon.

Capital Letters: The first word of

1.  a sentence

2.  a line of poetry

3.  a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence,

4.  phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter.

5.  proper names including all names of the Deity, and words derived from them

6.  names of things vividly personified

7.  most abbreviations.

QUOTATION MARKS RULE

Double Quotation marks ” enclose a copied word or passage.

Single marks ‘ ‘ enclose a quotation within a quotation. If, within the quotation having single marks, still another quotation is made, the double marks are again used.

When a quotation is divided by a parenthetical expression, each part of the quotation is enclosed; as,

“I would rather be right,” said Clay, “than be president.”

In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed. So also with the exclamation point.

Use quotation marks to enclose a copied word or passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, the latter is enclosed within single marks.

Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting another’s words, you insert by way of explanation or correction.